Unit vectors and bases

Express vectors using Cartesian, polar, or problem-adapted bases. Theory, formulas, worked examples and interactive graphs.

What it is

A unit vector is an arrow of magnitude one that indicates direction only. A basis is a set of independent directions that lets any vector be written through components. In physics, the basis turns geometry into controlled calculation.

Why it appears in physics

It appears when writing forces with i, j, k, when using radial and tangential directions in rotation, or when describing flow with normal and tangent. Choosing the basis well simplifies equations and reduces sign errors.

Visual or geometric idea

The visual idea is building an oriented ruler for each important direction. Cartesian bases use fixed axes; in polar form, a radial direction changes with position and a tangential direction rotates around the center.

Minimal symbolic language

A vector is written as vec A = A_x i + A_y j in 2D or A_x i + A_y j + A_z k in 3D. In another basis it could be A_r e_r + A_theta e_theta. Unit vectors do not carry physical units; units live in components.

What the result means

The result indicates how much of the vector lies along each basis direction. A zero component does not eliminate the vector: it only says there is no part along that direction. Changing basis changes components, not the original directed magnitude.

When not to use it

Do not treat unit vectors as physical magnitudes. Do not assume every unit vector is constant: in polar coordinates, e_r and e_theta change with angle. When differentiated, they can add extra terms.

Operational summary

Choose basis, declare unit vectors, project components, and keep units in the components. Basic level: i, j. Intermediate: adapted bases. Advanced: variable unit vectors and curvilinear coordinates.

Procedure

Before calculating

Read the physical situation before operating. Identify whether you need magnitude, direction, component, addition, projection, rotation, change of basis, or field. With vectors, choosing the wrong operation changes the meaning even if the number looks reasonable.

Step 1: identify the mathematical object

Write which vector or vectors appear, which units they have, and relative to which reference they are described. Draw an arrow if geometry is involved. If there are components, declare axes and positive senses before calculating.

Step 2: choose the operation

Choose the tool from the question: addition for resultant, subtraction for comparison, scalar multiplication for magnitude change, dot product for alignment, cross product for rotation, change of basis for new axes, and field for a vector at each point.

Step 3: preserve units and signs

Preserve units in components and results. Magnitude has no sign, but components do. If you change basis, do not mix old and new components. If a product appears, check whether the final unit is a product or quotient.

Step 4: calculate

Calculate step by step. With components, operate axis by axis. With products, decide first whether cosine or sine is needed. With fields, evaluate the point before interpreting the arrow. Check the result with an approximate drawing.

Step 5: interpret the result

Turn the result into a physical sentence: which direction it has, which sense it indicates, which unit it preserves, and which effect it produces. If the result is zero, explain cancellation, perpendicularity, equilibrium, or absence of component.

Self-check checklist

Axes declared, units visible, operation justified, signs checked, drawing coherent, result interpreted, and domain stated. Basic level: arrows. Intermediate level: components. Advanced level: bases, products, and fields with physical meaning.

Guided example

Physical situation

A body receives two vectors related to 2d motion: one points right with magnitude 6 units and another points upward with magnitude 8 units. The question is which vector result describes the combined effect and what physical meaning it has.

Mathematical translation

The vectors are written as components in perpendicular axes: A = (6, 0) and B = (0, 8). The mathematical object is a vector combination in the same basis, not a sum of names or a comparison of isolated magnitudes.

Step-by-step calculation

The resultant is R = A + B = (6, 8). Its magnitude is sqrt(6^2 + 8^2) = 10. The direction forms an angle whose tangent is 8/6, so it points into the first quadrant, between the original two vectors.

Reading the result

The result means the combined effect is not 14 in an arbitrary direction, but an arrow of magnitude 10 with defined direction. If the units were newtons, the resultant is in newtons; if they were meters per second, it is in meters per second.

Common error avoided

The avoided error is adding magnitudes when directions are perpendicular. That sum would only be valid for collinear vectors with the same sense. Here geometry requires components and magnitude reconstruction.

Inverse example

Given result

A resultant vector R = (0, 0) is obtained by adding three forces applied to a point particle, all expressed in the same axes and with the same unit.

What physical question it can answer

It can answer whether the point is in equilibrium after considering those forces. It does not mean no forces exist, but that their vector effects cancel in the chosen basis.

Common errors

Error 1: choosing the wrong operation

It may seem reasonable to use the same calculation for every vector. It fails because addition, projection, and rotation answer different questions. Detect it by reading whether the prompt asks for resultant, component, alignment, or rotation axis. Correct it by choosing the operation before substituting numbers.

Error 2: losing the meaning of the variable

The error appears when an arrow is treated as a number without reference. A force, velocity, or field has different units and meaning. Detect it by asking which physical quantity each vector represents. Correct it by writing physical name, unit, and coordinate system.

Error 3: ignoring units

Vector operations preserve or combine units. A force component remains in newtons, work comes out in joules, and torque in newton meters. Detect it by calculating final units. Correct it by operating with units together with numbers.

Error 4: confusing sign and magnitude

A magnitude cannot be negative, but a component can. Deleting signs destroys direction and sense. Detect it by comparing the sign with the drawing. Correct it by separating magnitude, component, and physical sense.

Error 5: applying a rule outside its domain

Some rules are valid only in orthogonal bases, with vectors in the same system, or in three dimensions. Detect it by checking assumptions about axes, plane, and domain. Correct it by declaring basis, dimension, and limits before operating.

Quick detection rule

If a vector answer does not state direction, sense, unit, and meaning, it is incomplete. The minimum control is drawing the result and checking whether it matches the expected physics.

Physical applications

1. 2D motion

It appears when a directed quantity must be calculated, compared, or interpreted in 2d motion. A component, resultant, projection, orientation, or associated vector is calculated depending on the question. The result means a physical effect with magnitude, direction, sense, and unit. The dangerous error is reducing it to a number without preserving vector geometry.

2. Rotation

It appears when a directed quantity must be calculated, compared, or interpreted in rotation. A component, resultant, projection, orientation, or associated vector is calculated depending on the question. The result means a physical effect with magnitude, direction, sense, and unit. The dangerous error is reducing it to a number without preserving vector geometry.

3. Electromagnetic fields

It appears when a directed quantity must be calculated, compared, or interpreted in electromagnetic fields. A component, resultant, projection, orientation, or associated vector is calculated depending on the question. The result means a physical effect with magnitude, direction, sense, and unit. The dangerous error is reducing it to a number without preserving vector geometry.

4. Fluids

It appears when a directed quantity must be calculated, compared, or interpreted in fluids. A component, resultant, projection, orientation, or associated vector is calculated depending on the question. The result means a physical effect with magnitude, direction, sense, and unit. The dangerous error is reducing it to a number without preserving vector geometry.

5. Inclined planes

It appears when a directed quantity must be calculated, compared, or interpreted in inclined planes. A component, resultant, projection, orientation, or associated vector is calculated depending on the question. The result means a physical effect with magnitude, direction, sense, and unit. The dangerous error is reducing it to a number without preserving vector geometry.

Practice

Level 1: recognition

Identify in five drawings which objects represent vectors, scalars, components, and resultants. Write magnitude, direction, and sense when possible. If reference is missing, state which datum you would request before operating.

Level 2: direct application

Calculate components of a vector (3, 4), its magnitude, and its approximate direction. Then add (3, 4) to (-1, 2) and write the result with symbolic unit.

Level 3: choosing the tool

Decide whether each question asks for addition, subtraction, dot product, cross product, change of basis, or field reading: work of a force, torque, net force, relative velocity, and electric field at a point. Calculate at least one simple example and justify each choice carefully.

Level 4: physical interpretation

Interpret a resultant negative in x and positive in y. Explain its sense and what cannot be concluded from magnitude alone. Connect the answer with force, velocity, or field.

Level 5: intentional error

A learner adds 5 N to the right and 5 N upward and answers 10 N. Locate the error, explain why magnitudes are not added directly, and correct with components, magnitude, and direction.